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Mary
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Androgen Index 100
Anabolic Index 100
Estrogen activity moderate
Low progesterone activity
Common Forms Oil for Injection
describe:
Testosterone propionate is a commonly used injectable testosterone. The added propionate will slow the rate of testosterone release from the injection site, but only for a few days. Therefore, testosterone propionate has a relatively faster action than other testosterone esters such as enanthate, cypionate or enanthate, and requires more frequent injection administration. Most people think of testosterone propionate as an older and rougher version of injectable testosterone, phased out by slower-acting and more comfortable esters developed later. As an injectable testosterone, it works quickly and rapidly increases muscle size and strength.
Testosterone Propionate Product History:
Testosterone propionate was first introduced in 1935 in a series of experiments where propionate was used to increase the therapeutic use of testosterone by slowing its release into the serum. Two years later, the German company Schering will launch the first testosterone propionate product called Testoviron®. Testosterone propionate was also the first commercially available injectable ester of testosterone on the U.S. prescription drug market and remained the predominant form of injectable testosterone products worldwide until 1960. For example, in the early 1950s, when steroids were first tested by a small number of American athletes, the only anabolic/androgenic steroids readily available on the market were methyltestosterone, testosterone propionate, and testosterone aqua (testosterone suspension) . Interestingly, testosterone propionate was also available in oral (oral) formulations during this period, but they disappeared from the US market in the 1980s.
Testosterone propionate in the medical field:
The early prescribing guidelines for testosterone propionate have many therapeutic uses. It is mainly used in cases of male androgen insufficiency, and in the problems usually surrounding low testosterone levels, such as hyposexuality and impotence in adults, and cryptorchidism in adolescents and young adults. Testosterone propionate has also been used to treat female menopause, menorrhagia (heavy menstrual bleeding), menstrual tension, chronic cystic mastitis (fibrocystic breasts), endometriosis, and excessive lactation among other uses. Covers various situations in which the male hormone testosterone is applied. for female patients. Over the years, these broad guidelines were narrowed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, however by the 1980s, testosterone propionate was primarily reserved for male patients. Testosterone propionate has a long history of availability in the United States and other countries and is still a very common form of testosterone on the global market today. However, it must be emphasized that its ability to remain in the market is more a product of history than a unique application. Testosterone propionate was the first acceptable testosterone ester and thus has a decades-long history as an available therapeutic. Many companies have been selling it for decades and will continue to do so as long as it remains in demand. But other (more modern) forms of testosterone like testosterone enanthate and testosterone cypionate are more popular today because they act much more slowly and don't require frequent injections. Testosterone propionate is still approved for sale in the United States, and bodybuilders generally consider testosterone propionate to be the mildest testosterone ester, and often schedule it in off-season prep cycles. Some would even say that propionate is very effective for increasing muscle stiffness while giving the user less water and fat retention than testosterone like enanthate, cypionate. In practice, however, these advantages do not stand up to serious scrutiny. Propionate is actually removed before the testosterone it carries is active in the body and ultimately has little effect beyond slowing steroid release. It all comes down to how much testosterone each specific esterified compound makes in your blood. Otherwise, there is no real functional difference between them.
Common product specifications for testosterone propionate:
Testosterone propionate is widely used in the human and veterinary markets. The formulation and dosage can vary by country and manufacturer, with common dosage strengths being: 25mg/ml, 50mg/ml or 100mg/ml, usually loaded in 10ml vials or 1ml ampoules.
Structural characteristics of testosterone propionate:
Testosterone propionate is a modified form of testosterone in which a carboxylate (propionic acid) has been attached to the 17-beta hydroxyl group. The esterified form of testosterone is less polar than free testosterone and is absorbed more slowly from the injection area. Once in the bloodstream, the ester is removed, resulting in free (active) testosterone. The esterified form of testosterone is designed to extend the window of therapeutic effect after administration, allowing for a less frequent injection regimen compared to injections of free (unesterified) steroids. Testosterone propionate is usually injected daily or every other day, and the half-life of testosterone propionate is about two days after injection.
Testosterone Propionate Side Effects: (estrogenic side effects)
Testosterone is easily aromatized in the body, which is converted into estradiol (estrogen). Aromatase (estrogen synthase) is responsible for this metabolism of testosterone. Elevated levels of estrogen can cause side effects such as: body water storage, increased body fat and gynecomastia (bitch milk). Testosterone is considered a moderate estrogenic steroid. Some antiestrogen drugs, such as clomiphene or tamoxifen, are necessary to prevent the side effects of elevated estrogen. Aromatase inhibitors such as anastrozole (Arimidex) may alternatively be used, which control estrogen more effectively by preventing estrogen synthesis. However, aromatase inhibitors are more expensive than antiestrogens and have a negative impact on blood lipids. The effect of estrogenic side effects is generally determined by the use of high or low doses, and higher doses (higher than normal therapeutic levels) of testosterone require concomitant use of anti-estrogens or aromatase inhibitors to suppress the body's estrogen levels. Decreased water storage, body dryness, and muscle definition are common with higher doses of testosterone, so this testosterone enanthate is generally considered not to be added to a prep or fat loss cycle. Its moderate estrogenic properties make it more suitable for off-season muscle building, and the water-storage properties are more beneficial in off-season species to support training intensity and muscle size, and help promote a stronger anabolic environment.
Testosterone Propionate Side Effects: (Androgenic Side Effects)
Testosterone is the primary male androgen responsible for the maintenance of secondary male sexual characteristics. Elevated testosterone levels may have androgenic side effects, including oily skin, acne, and body/facial hair growth from overactive sebaceous glands. Men with a genetic predisposition to hair loss (androgenetic alopecia) may experience accelerated baldness. Those concerned about hair loss can use nandrolone decanoate (DECA), a milder steroid that is a great option for those with hair loss. Women are particularly affected by steroids, especially potent androgenic steroids such as testosterone. Androgens cause some masculinizing traits in women, which may include a deepened voice, irregular menstruation, changes in skin texture, facial hair growth, and an enlarged clitoris. In androgen-responsive target tissues such as the skin, scalp and prostate, the androgenic effects of testosterone depend on how much is converted to dihydrotestosterone (DHT). 5-alpha reductase is responsible for this metabolism of testosterone. Concomitant use of 5-alpha reductase inhibitors such as finasteride or dutasteride interferes with the site-specific enhancement of testosterone action, reducing the propensity of testosterone drugs to produce androgenic side effects. It is important to remember that both anabolic and androgenic effects are mediated through the cytosolic androgen receptor. Even with 5-alpha reductase inhibition, it is not possible to completely separate the anabolic and androgenic properties of testosterone.
Testosterone Propionate Side Effects: (Liver Toxicity)
Testosterone has no hepatotoxic effects; hepatotoxicity is unlikely. One study examined the potential for hepatotoxicity of high-dose testosterone by administering 400 mg of the hormone per day (2,800 mg per week) to a group of male subjects. Oral steroids resulted in higher peak concentrations in liver tissue compared to intramuscular injections. Hormones were administered daily for 20 days, and liver enzyme values included serum albumin, bilirubin, alanine-aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase. no significant change,
Testosterone Propionate Side Effects: (Cardiovascular Effects)
Anabolic/androgenic steroids can have deleterious effects on serum cholesterol. This includes a tendency to lower HDL (good) cholesterol values and increase LDL (bad) cholesterol values, which may shift HDL toward LDL balance, and abnormalities in this indicator may contribute to and increase the risk of arteriosclerosis. The effect of anabolic/androgenic steroids on blood lipids depends on dose, route of administration (oral vs. injection), type of steroid (aromatizable or non-aromatizable), and level of resistance to hepatic metabolism. Anabolic/androgenic steroids may also adversely affect blood pressure and triglycerides, reduce endothelial relaxation, and cause left ventricular hypertrophy, all of which may increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and myocardial infarction. Testosterone has a much smaller effect on cardiovascular risk factors than other steroid products. This is due to the openness of the liver to metabolism, making it less of an impact on liver cholesterol. The aromatization of estradiol by testosterone also helps mitigate the negative effects of androgens on blood lipids. In one study, 280 mg weekly of testosterone ester (enanthate) had a slight but no statistically significant effect on HDL cholesterol after 12 weeks, but when taken with an aromatase inhibitor, a strong decrease was observed (25%). While another study showed that using 300mg of testosterone weekly for 20 weeks without aromatase inhibitors showed only a 13% reduction in HDL cholesterol, 600mg testosterone reduced it by 21%. The effect on blood lipids should be considered before using aromatase inhibitors. Due to the positive effect of estrogen on blood lipids, tamoxifen or clomiphene are preferred over aromatase inhibitors for those associated with cardiovascular health because they provide partial estrogenic effects in the liver. This allows them to potentially improve lipid profiles and counteract some of the negative effects of androgens. When a weekly dose of 600 mg or less is used, the effect on blood lipids is often significant, but not too severe, and the use of antiestrogens may not be necessary. Doses of 600 mg per week or less also failed to produce significant changes in LDL/VLDL cholesterol, triglycerides, apolipoprotein B/C-III, C-reactive protein, and insulin sensitivity, all of which suggest a The influence of vascular risk factors was relatively weak. Testosterone is generally considered the safest of all anabolic/androgenic steroids when used in moderate doses. To help reduce cardiovascular strain as well as abnormal blood lipid levels, it is recommended to proactively maintain an active aerobic exercise program and minimize saturated fat, cholesterol, and simple carbohydrate intake during steroid use. Supplementation with fish oil (4 grams per day) and natural cholesterol/antioxidant products is also recommended.
Testosterone Propionate Side Effects: (HPTA Hypothalamic Inhibition)
The use of exogenous testosterone suppresses the production of natural testosterone. For patients with low testosterone, this is not a problem. Because his own testosterone secretion is not normal. For athletes who are using steroids, this is also irrelevant during the cycle phase because the exogenous testosterone administered will provide your body with everything it needs. Once all anabolic steroid use ends, natural testicles
The secretion of hormones will start again. However, you won't get back to normal overnight, it will take a while. Once use has ended, most people begin a post-cycle therapy (PCT) program. A quality and effective PCT program will include SERMs like tamoxifen (Nolvadex) and clomiphene (Clomid) and the peptide hormone HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin). Without the PCT program, although you will also recover, it will take a lot of time. Since chronically low testosterone is an anabolic environment in which cortisol becomes the dominant hormone, the loss of results when muscle tissue is in a state of breakdown can be severe. Normal secretion and levels of testosterone will return to normal within 1-4 months after stopping steroid use. Note that chronic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism may be secondary to steroid abuse and require medical intervention
Testosterone Propionate Side Effects: (Fertility Issues)
During the use cycle of anabolic steroid AAS, it will break the normal endocrine environment of the human body, causing the flocculation of sex hormone secretion, and the imbalance of the secretion of various hormones will result in poor sperm quality and small quantity. During use, because the sperm quality is too poor, the probability of conception will be very low. Of course, protective measures must be taken during use. After the body returns to normal endocrine, fertility problems can be recovered.
Use of Testosterone Propionate:
Usage FAQ: Testosterone propionate is often considered a painful injection.
This is due to the very short carbon chain of propionate, which may irritate the tissue at the injection site. Many sensitive people who choose to stay away from the steroid altogether experience significant soreness and low-grade fever, which may last several days after each injection. Even the mild soreness that most users experience can be very uncomfortable, especially when you consider that the drug is given multiple times a week for weeks on end.
Dosage: In treating symptoms of androgen deficiency, early prescribing guidelines recommend a dose of 25 mg of testosterone propionate two to three times per week. Modern product literature generally recommends 25 mg to 50 mg given 2 to 3 times a week for the same purpose. The usual dose for male athletes is 50-100 mg per injection, given every other or third day. Similar to other testosterone esters, testosterone propionate is typically used in cumulative weekly doses of 200mg to 400mg. This level is sufficient for a significant increase in muscle size and strength in most people.
Women using testosterone propionate:
Testosterone propionate is rarely used with women in clinical medicine. When applied, it is often used as a secondary drug during inoperable breast cancer, when other therapies have failed to produce the desired effect and suppression of ovarian function is required. Testosterone propionate is not recommended for women due to its strong androgenic properties and propensity to produce virilizing side effects. However, female bodybuilders who insist on using testosterone often choose to use testosterone propionate because it is easier to control blood levels than other long ester chain steroids. If symptoms of virilization occur, hormone levels will drop over a few days rather than the required slow weeks after discontinuing use immediately.
Product Manual
Androgen Index 100
Anabolic Index 100
Estrogen activity moderate
Low progesterone activity
Common Forms Oil for Injection
describe:
Testosterone propionate is a commonly used injectable testosterone. The added propionate will slow the rate of testosterone release from the injection site, but only for a few days. Therefore, testosterone propionate has a relatively faster action than other testosterone esters such as enanthate, cypionate or enanthate, and requires more frequent injection administration. Most people think of testosterone propionate as an older and rougher version of injectable testosterone, phased out by slower-acting and more comfortable esters developed later. As an injectable testosterone, it works quickly and rapidly increases muscle size and strength.
Testosterone Propionate Product History:
Testosterone propionate was first introduced in 1935 in a series of experiments where propionate was used to increase the therapeutic use of testosterone by slowing its release into the serum. Two years later, the German company Schering will launch the first testosterone propionate product called Testoviron®. Testosterone propionate was also the first commercially available injectable ester of testosterone on the U.S. prescription drug market and remained the predominant form of injectable testosterone products worldwide until 1960. For example, in the early 1950s, when steroids were first tested by a small number of American athletes, the only anabolic/androgenic steroids readily available on the market were methyltestosterone, testosterone propionate, and testosterone aqua (testosterone suspension) . Interestingly, testosterone propionate was also available in oral (oral) formulations during this period, but they disappeared from the US market in the 1980s.
Testosterone propionate in the medical field:
The early prescribing guidelines for testosterone propionate have many therapeutic uses. It is mainly used in cases of male androgen insufficiency, and in the problems usually surrounding low testosterone levels, such as hyposexuality and impotence in adults, and cryptorchidism in adolescents and young adults. Testosterone propionate has also been used to treat female menopause, menorrhagia (heavy menstrual bleeding), menstrual tension, chronic cystic mastitis (fibrocystic breasts), endometriosis, and excessive lactation among other uses. Covers various situations in which the male hormone testosterone is applied. for female patients. Over the years, these broad guidelines were narrowed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, however by the 1980s, testosterone propionate was primarily reserved for male patients. Testosterone propionate has a long history of availability in the United States and other countries and is still a very common form of testosterone on the global market today. However, it must be emphasized that its ability to remain in the market is more a product of history than a unique application. Testosterone propionate was the first acceptable testosterone ester and thus has a decades-long history as an available therapeutic. Many companies have been selling it for decades and will continue to do so as long as it remains in demand. But other (more modern) forms of testosterone like testosterone enanthate and testosterone cypionate are more popular today because they act much more slowly and don't require frequent injections. Testosterone propionate is still approved for sale in the United States, and bodybuilders generally consider testosterone propionate to be the mildest testosterone ester, and often schedule it in off-season prep cycles. Some would even say that propionate is very effective for increasing muscle stiffness while giving the user less water and fat retention than testosterone like enanthate, cypionate. In practice, however, these advantages do not stand up to serious scrutiny. Propionate is actually removed before the testosterone it carries is active in the body and ultimately has little effect beyond slowing steroid release. It all comes down to how much testosterone each specific esterified compound makes in your blood. Otherwise, there is no real functional difference between them.
Common product specifications for testosterone propionate:
Testosterone propionate is widely used in the human and veterinary markets. The formulation and dosage can vary by country and manufacturer, with common dosage strengths being: 25mg/ml, 50mg/ml or 100mg/ml, usually loaded in 10ml vials or 1ml ampoules.
Structural characteristics of testosterone propionate:
Testosterone propionate is a modified form of testosterone in which a carboxylate (propionic acid) has been attached to the 17-beta hydroxyl group. The esterified form of testosterone is less polar than free testosterone and is absorbed more slowly from the injection area. Once in the bloodstream, the ester is removed, resulting in free (active) testosterone. The esterified form of testosterone is designed to extend the window of therapeutic effect after administration, allowing for a less frequent injection regimen compared to injections of free (unesterified) steroids. Testosterone propionate is usually injected daily or every other day, and the half-life of testosterone propionate is about two days after injection.
Testosterone Propionate Side Effects: (estrogenic side effects)
Testosterone is easily aromatized in the body, which is converted into estradiol (estrogen). Aromatase (estrogen synthase) is responsible for this metabolism of testosterone. Elevated levels of estrogen can cause side effects such as: body water storage, increased body fat and gynecomastia (bitch milk). Testosterone is considered a moderate estrogenic steroid. Some antiestrogen drugs, such as clomiphene or tamoxifen, are necessary to prevent the side effects of elevated estrogen. Aromatase inhibitors such as anastrozole (Arimidex) may alternatively be used, which control estrogen more effectively by preventing estrogen synthesis. However, aromatase inhibitors are more expensive than antiestrogens and have a negative impact on blood lipids. The effect of estrogenic side effects is generally determined by the use of high or low doses, and higher doses (higher than normal therapeutic levels) of testosterone require concomitant use of anti-estrogens or aromatase inhibitors to suppress the body's estrogen levels. Decreased water storage, body dryness, and muscle definition are common with higher doses of testosterone, so this testosterone enanthate is generally considered not to be added to a prep or fat loss cycle. Its moderate estrogenic properties make it more suitable for off-season muscle building, and the water-storage properties are more beneficial in off-season species to support training intensity and muscle size, and help promote a stronger anabolic environment.
Testosterone Propionate Side Effects: (Androgenic Side Effects)
Testosterone is the primary male androgen responsible for the maintenance of secondary male sexual characteristics. Elevated testosterone levels may have androgenic side effects, including oily skin, acne, and body/facial hair growth from overactive sebaceous glands. Men with a genetic predisposition to hair loss (androgenetic alopecia) may experience accelerated baldness. Those concerned about hair loss can use nandrolone decanoate (DECA), a milder steroid that is a great option for those with hair loss. Women are particularly affected by steroids, especially potent androgenic steroids such as testosterone. Androgens cause some masculinizing traits in women, which may include a deepened voice, irregular menstruation, changes in skin texture, facial hair growth, and an enlarged clitoris. In androgen-responsive target tissues such as the skin, scalp and prostate, the androgenic effects of testosterone depend on how much is converted to dihydrotestosterone (DHT). 5-alpha reductase is responsible for this metabolism of testosterone. Concomitant use of 5-alpha reductase inhibitors such as finasteride or dutasteride interferes with the site-specific enhancement of testosterone action, reducing the propensity of testosterone drugs to produce androgenic side effects. It is important to remember that both anabolic and androgenic effects are mediated through the cytosolic androgen receptor. Even with 5-alpha reductase inhibition, it is not possible to completely separate the anabolic and androgenic properties of testosterone.
Testosterone Propionate Side Effects: (Liver Toxicity)
Testosterone has no hepatotoxic effects; hepatotoxicity is unlikely. One study examined the potential for hepatotoxicity of high-dose testosterone by administering 400 mg of the hormone per day (2,800 mg per week) to a group of male subjects. Oral steroids resulted in higher peak concentrations in liver tissue compared to intramuscular injections. Hormones were administered daily for 20 days, and liver enzyme values included serum albumin, bilirubin, alanine-aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase. no significant change,
Testosterone Propionate Side Effects: (Cardiovascular Effects)
Anabolic/androgenic steroids can have deleterious effects on serum cholesterol. This includes a tendency to lower HDL (good) cholesterol values and increase LDL (bad) cholesterol values, which may shift HDL toward LDL balance, and abnormalities in this indicator may contribute to and increase the risk of arteriosclerosis. The effect of anabolic/androgenic steroids on blood lipids depends on dose, route of administration (oral vs. injection), type of steroid (aromatizable or non-aromatizable), and level of resistance to hepatic metabolism. Anabolic/androgenic steroids may also adversely affect blood pressure and triglycerides, reduce endothelial relaxation, and cause left ventricular hypertrophy, all of which may increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and myocardial infarction. Testosterone has a much smaller effect on cardiovascular risk factors than other steroid products. This is due to the openness of the liver to metabolism, making it less of an impact on liver cholesterol. The aromatization of estradiol by testosterone also helps mitigate the negative effects of androgens on blood lipids. In one study, 280 mg weekly of testosterone ester (enanthate) had a slight but no statistically significant effect on HDL cholesterol after 12 weeks, but when taken with an aromatase inhibitor, a strong decrease was observed (25%). While another study showed that using 300mg of testosterone weekly for 20 weeks without aromatase inhibitors showed only a 13% reduction in HDL cholesterol, 600mg testosterone reduced it by 21%. The effect on blood lipids should be considered before using aromatase inhibitors. Due to the positive effect of estrogen on blood lipids, tamoxifen or clomiphene are preferred over aromatase inhibitors for those associated with cardiovascular health because they provide partial estrogenic effects in the liver. This allows them to potentially improve lipid profiles and counteract some of the negative effects of androgens. When a weekly dose of 600 mg or less is used, the effect on blood lipids is often significant, but not too severe, and the use of antiestrogens may not be necessary. Doses of 600 mg per week or less also failed to produce significant changes in LDL/VLDL cholesterol, triglycerides, apolipoprotein B/C-III, C-reactive protein, and insulin sensitivity, all of which suggest a The influence of vascular risk factors was relatively weak. Testosterone is generally considered the safest of all anabolic/androgenic steroids when used in moderate doses. To help reduce cardiovascular strain as well as abnormal blood lipid levels, it is recommended to proactively maintain an active aerobic exercise program and minimize saturated fat, cholesterol, and simple carbohydrate intake during steroid use. Supplementation with fish oil (4 grams per day) and natural cholesterol/antioxidant products is also recommended.
Testosterone Propionate Side Effects: (HPTA Hypothalamic Inhibition)
The use of exogenous testosterone suppresses the production of natural testosterone. For patients with low testosterone, this is not a problem. Because his own testosterone secretion is not normal. For athletes who are using steroids, this is also irrelevant during the cycle phase because the exogenous testosterone administered will provide your body with everything it needs. Once all anabolic steroid use ends, natural testicles
The secretion of hormones will start again. However, you won't get back to normal overnight, it will take a while. Once use has ended, most people begin a post-cycle therapy (PCT) program. A quality and effective PCT program will include SERMs like tamoxifen (Nolvadex) and clomiphene (Clomid) and the peptide hormone HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin). Without the PCT program, although you will also recover, it will take a lot of time. Since chronically low testosterone is an anabolic environment in which cortisol becomes the dominant hormone, the loss of results when muscle tissue is in a state of breakdown can be severe. Normal secretion and levels of testosterone will return to normal within 1-4 months after stopping steroid use. Note that chronic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism may be secondary to steroid abuse and require medical intervention
Testosterone Propionate Side Effects: (Fertility Issues)
During the use cycle of anabolic steroid AAS, it will break the normal endocrine environment of the human body, causing the flocculation of sex hormone secretion, and the imbalance of the secretion of various hormones will result in poor sperm quality and small quantity. During use, because the sperm quality is too poor, the probability of conception will be very low. Of course, protective measures must be taken during use. After the body returns to normal endocrine, fertility problems can be recovered.
Use of Testosterone Propionate:
Usage FAQ: Testosterone propionate is often considered a painful injection.
This is due to the very short carbon chain of propionate, which may irritate the tissue at the injection site. Many sensitive people who choose to stay away from the steroid altogether experience significant soreness and low-grade fever, which may last several days after each injection. Even the mild soreness that most users experience can be very uncomfortable, especially when you consider that the drug is given multiple times a week for weeks on end.
Dosage: In treating symptoms of androgen deficiency, early prescribing guidelines recommend a dose of 25 mg of testosterone propionate two to three times per week. Modern product literature generally recommends 25 mg to 50 mg given 2 to 3 times a week for the same purpose. The usual dose for male athletes is 50-100 mg per injection, given every other or third day. Similar to other testosterone esters, testosterone propionate is typically used in cumulative weekly doses of 200mg to 400mg. This level is sufficient for a significant increase in muscle size and strength in most people.
Women using testosterone propionate:
Testosterone propionate is rarely used with women in clinical medicine. When applied, it is often used as a secondary drug during inoperable breast cancer, when other therapies have failed to produce the desired effect and suppression of ovarian function is required. Testosterone propionate is not recommended for women due to its strong androgenic properties and propensity to produce virilizing side effects. However, female bodybuilders who insist on using testosterone often choose to use testosterone propionate because it is easier to control blood levels than other long ester chain steroids. If symptoms of virilization occur, hormone levels will drop over a few days rather than the required slow weeks after discontinuing use immediately.
Product Manual
